African Journal of
Microbiology Research

  • Abbreviation: Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.
  • Language: English
  • ISSN: 1996-0808
  • DOI: 10.5897/AJMR
  • Start Year: 2007
  • Published Articles: 5233

Review

Epidemiology of bloodstream infection in Saudi Arabia

Hani A. Ozbak
  • Hani A. Ozbak
  • Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, P.O Box 344, Medina, Saudi Arabia.
  • Google Scholar


  •  Received: 20 September 2018
  •  Accepted: 12 November 2018
  •  Published: 21 November 2018

References

Adib M, Bakhshiani Z, Navaei F, Fosoul FS, Fouladi S, Kazemzadeh H (2012). Procalcitonin: a reliable marker for the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. Iranian journal of basic medical sciences 15(2):777.

 

Aittakorpi A, Kuusela P, Koukila-Kähkölä P, Vaara M, Petrou M, Gant V, Mäki M (2012). Accurate and rapid identification of Candida spp. frequently associated with fungemia by using PCR and the microarray-based Prove-it Sepsis assay. Journal of clinical microbiology 50(11):3635-3640.
Crossref

 
 

Al Thaqafi A, Farahat F, Al Harbi M, Al Amri A, Perfect J (2014). Predictors and outcomes of Candida bloodstream infection: eight-year surveillance, western Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 21:5-9.
Crossref

 
 

Al-Abdely H, Alshehri A, Rosenthal V, Banjar W, Mohammed Y, Assiri A, Fabros Cabato A, Gonzales Celiz J, Raey A, Abdullah M (2017a). Device-associated infection rates in Intensive Care Units of five cities of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INCC) findings. Canadian Journal of Infection Control 32(1):31-36.

 
 

Al-Abdely H, Alshehri A, Rosenthal V, Mohammed Y, Banjar W, Orellano P, Assiri A, Kader N, Enizy H, Mohammed D (2017b). Prospective multicentre study in intensive care units in five cities from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Impact of the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) multidimensional approach on rates of central line-associated bloodstream infection. Journal of infection prevention 18(1):25-34.
Crossref

 
 

Al-Mously N (2013). Acinetobacter baumannii bloodstream infections in a tertiary hospital: Antimicrobial resistance surveillance. International Journal of Infection Control 9(2).
Crossref

 
 

Al-Tawfiq J, Abed M (2009). Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of health care associated bloodstream infections at a general hospital in Saudi Arabia. Saudi medical journal 30(9):1213-1218.

 
 

Al-Tawfiq J, Mohandhas T (2007). Prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-baumannii complex in a Saudi Arabian hospital. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology 28(7):870-872.
Crossref

 
 

Al-Zamil F (2008). Bacteremia in children at the university hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. World Journal of Pediatrics 4(2):118-122.
Crossref

 
 

Altun O, Almuhayawi M, Ullberg M, Özenci V (2013). Clinical evaluation of the FilmArray blood culture identification panel in identification of bacteria and yeasts from positive blood culture bottles. Journal of clinical microbiology 51(12):4130-4136.
Crossref

 
 

Anderson D, Kirkland K, Kaye K, Thacker P, Kanafani Z, Auten G, Sexton D (2007). Underresourced hospital infection control and prevention programs: penny wise, pound foolish. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 28(7):767-773.
Crossref

 
 

Asghar A (2006). Frequency and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of bacterial pathogens isolated from septicemic patients in Makkah hospitals. Saudi medical journal 27(3):361-367.

 
 

Atlıhan F, Akagündüz B, Genel F, Bak M, Can D (2002). Procalcitonin: a marker of neonatal sepsis. Journal of tropical pediatrics 48(1):10-14.
Crossref

 
 

Babay H (2007). Bacterial isolates from fatal cases of bloodstream infections at a university hospital in Central, Saudi Arabia. Saudi medical journal 28(2):231-235.

 
 

Bassetti M, Villa G (2012). Empiric Therapy of Gram-positive Bloodstream Infections and Pneumonia. Annual Update in Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine: Springer. pp. 264-277.

 
 

Bloos F, Sachse S, Kortgen A, Pletz M, Lehmann M, Straube E, Riedemann N, Reinhart K, Bauer M (2012). Evaluation of a polymerase chain reaction assay for pathogen detection in septic patients under routine condition: an observational study. PLoS One 7(9):e46003.
Crossref

 
 

Chan J, Pallen M, Oppenheim B, Constantinidou C (2012). Genome sequencing in clinical microbiology. Nature biotechnology 30(11):1068.
Crossref

 
 

Cheng J, Huang C, Lin C, Chang Y, Cheng S (2006). Rapid detection and identification of clinically important bacteria by high resolution melting analysis after broad range ribosomal RNA real time PCR. Clinical Chemistry 52: 1997-2004.
Crossref

 
 

Chiesa C, Pacifico L, Rossi N, Panero A, Matrunola M, Mancuso G (2000). Procalcitonin as a marker of nosocomial infections in the neonatal intensive care unit. Intensive care medicine 26(2):S175-S177.
Crossref

 
 

Clerc O, Prod'hom G, Vogne C, Bizzini A, Calandra T, Greub G (2012). Impact of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry on the clinical management of patients with Gram-negative bacteremia: a prospective observational study. Clinical infectious diseases 56(8): 1101-1107.
Crossref

 
 

Dandona P, Nix D, Wilson M, Aljada A, Love J, Assicot M, Bohuon C (1994). Procalcitonin increase after endotoxin injection in normal subjects. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 79(6):1605-1608.

 
 

Dark P, Dean P, Warhurst G (2009). Bench-to-bedside review: the promise of rapid infection diagnosis during sepsis using polymerase chain reaction-based pathogen detection. Critical care 13(4):217.
Crossref

 
 

Datta S, Wattal C, Goel N, Oberoi J, Raveendran R, Prasad K (2012). A ten year analysis of multi-drug resistant blood stream infections caused by Escherichia coli & Klebsiella pneumoniae in a tertiary care hospital. The Indian journal of medical research 135(6):907.

 
 

Deen J, von Seidlein L, Andersen F, Elle N, White N, Lubell Y (2012). Community-acquired bacterial bloodstream infections in developing countries in south and southeast Asia: a systematic review. The Lancet infectious diseases 12(6):480-487.
Crossref

 
 

Ecker D, Sampath R, Li H, Massire C, Matthews H, Toleno D, Hall T, Blyn L, Eshoo M, Ranken R (2010). New technology for rapid molecular diagnosis of bloodstream infections. Expert review of molecular diagnostics 10(4):399-415.
Crossref

 
 

Eigner U, Holfelder M, Oberdorfer K, Betz-Wild U, Bertsch D, Fahr A-M (2009). Performance of a matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry system for the identification of bacterial isolates in the clinical routine laboratory. Clinical Laboratory Journal For Clinical Laboratories And Laboratories Related 55(7):289

 
 

Elbashier A, Malik A, Knot A (1998). Blood stream infections: micro-organisms, risk factors and mortality rate in Qatif Central Hospital. Annals of Saudi medicine 18(2):176.
Crossref

 
 

Fazzeli H, Arabestani MR, Esfahani BN, Khorvash F, Pourshafie MR, Moghim S, Safaei HG, Faghri J, Azimian A (2013). A new multiplex polymerase chain reaction assay for the identification a panel of bacteria involved in bacteremia. Advanced biomedical research 2:7.
Crossref

 
 

Folli H, Poole R, Benitz W, Russo J (1987). Medication error prevention by clinical pharmacists in two children's hospitals. Pediatrics 79(5):718-722.

 
 

Gao J, Jeffries L, Mach K, Craft D, Thomas N, Gau V, Liao JC, Wong P (2017). A Multiplex Electrochemical Biosensor for Bloodstream Infection Diagnosis. SLAS TECHNOLOGY: Translating Life Sciences Innovation 22(4):466-474.
Crossref

 
 

Gauer R (2013). Early recognition and management of sepsis in adults: the first six hours. American family physician 88(1):44-53.

 
 

Ghillani P, Motté P, Troalen F, Jullienne A, Gardet P, Le Chevalier T, Rougier P, Schlumberger M, Bohuon C, Bellet D (1989). Identification and measurement of calcitonin precursors in serum of patients with malignant diseases. Cancer Research 49(23):6845-6851.

 
 

Guibourdenche J, Bedu A, Petzold L, Marchand M, Mariani-Kurdjian P, Hurtaud-Roux M-F, Aujard Y, Porquet D (2002). Biochemical markers of neonatal sepsis: value of procalcitonin in the emergency setting. Annals of clinical biochemistry 39(2):130-135.
Crossref

 
 

Hall L, Le Febre K, Deml S, Wohlfiel S, Wengenack N (2012). Evaluation of the Yeast Traffic Light PNA FISH probes for identification of Candida species from positive blood cultures. Journal of clinical microbiology 50(4):1446-1448.
Crossref

 
 

Huttunen R, Syrjänen J, Vuento R, Aittoniemi J (2013). Current concepts in the diagnosis of blood stream infections. Are novel molecular methods useful in clinical practice? International Journal of Infectious Diseases 17(11):e934-e938.
Crossref

 
 

Jaye D, Waites K (1997). Clinical applications of C-reactive protein in pediatrics. The Pediatric infectious disease journal 16(8):735-747.
Crossref

 
 

Jensen J-U, Lundgren B, Hein L, Mohr T, Petersen P, Andersen L, Lauritsen A, Hougaard S, Mantoni T, Bømler B (2008). The Procalcitonin And Survival Study (PASS)–a randomised multi-center investigator-initiated trial to investigate whether daily measurements biomarker Procalcitonin and pro-active diagnostic and therapeutic responses to abnormal Procalcitonin levels, can improve survival in intensive care unit patients. Calculated sample size (target population): 1000 patients. BMC infectious diseases 8(1):91.
Crossref

 
 

Kim Y (2018). Procalcitonin in bloodstream infections: beyond its role as a marker of clinical algorithm to reduce antimicrobial overuse. The Korean journal of internal medicine 33(1):78
Crossref

 
 

Klouche M, Schröder U (2008). Rapid methods for diagnosis of bloodstream infections. Clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine 46(7):888-908.
Crossref

 
 

Köksal N, Harmanci R, Çetinkaya M, Hacimustafaoglu M (2007). Role of procalcitonin and CRP in diagnosis and follow-up of neonatal sepsis. The Turkish journal of pediatrics 49(1):21.

 
 

Kollef M, Zilberberg M, Shorr A, Vo L, Schein J, Micek S, Kim M (2011). Epidemiology, microbiology and outcomes of healthcare-associated and community-acquired bacteremia: a multicenter cohort study. Journal of Infection 62(2):130-135.
Crossref

 
 

Kopterides P, Siempos I, Tsangaris I, Tsantes A, Armaganidis A (2010). Procalcitonin-guided algorithms of antibiotic therapy in the intensive care unit: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Critical care medicine 38(11):2229-2241.
Crossref

 
 

La Scola B (2011). Intact cell MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry-based approaches for the diagnosis of bloodstream infections. Expert review of molecular diagnostics 11(3):287-298.
Crossref

La Scola B, Raoult D (2009). Direct identification of bacteria in positive blood culture bottles by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry. PLoS One 4(11):e8041.
Crossref

 

Laakso S, Mäki M (2013). Assessment of a semi‐automated protocol for multiplex analysis of sepsis‐causing bacteria with spiked whole blood samples. MicrobiologyOpen 2(2):284-292.
Crossref

 
 

Laupland K (2013). Incidence of bloodstream infection: a review of population‐based studies. Clinical microbiology and infection 19(6):492-500.
Crossref

 
 

Laupland K, Gregson D, Vanderkooi O, Ross T, Kellner J (2009). The changing burden of pediatric bloodstream infections in Calgary, Canada, 2000–2006. The Pediatric infectious disease journal 28(2):114-117.
Crossref

 
 

Liesenfeld O, Lehman L, Hunfeld K-P, Kost G (2014). Molecular diagnosis of sepsis: New aspects and recent developments. European journal of microbiology and immunology 4(1):1-25.
Crossref

 
 

Mancini N, Carletti S, Ghidoli N, Cichero P, Burioni R, Clementi M (2010). The era of molecular and other non-culture-based methods in diagnosis of sepsis. Clinical microbiology reviews 23(1):235-251.
Crossref

 
 

Mazi W, Begum Z, Abdulla D, Hesham A, Maghari S, Assiri A, Senok A (2014). Central line–associated bloodstream infection in a trauma intensive care unit: Impact of implementation of Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America/Infectious Diseases Society of America practice guidelines. American journal of infection control 42(8):865-867.
Crossref

 
 

McLaughlin G, Nares M, Smith L, Feinroth C (2012). Preventing central-line-associated bloodstream infections in pediatric specialized care units: A case study of successful quality improvement. Progress in Pediatric Cardiology 33(1):47-52.
Crossref

 
 

Metzgar D, Frinder M, Rothman R, Peterson S, Carroll K, Zhang S, Avornu G, Rounds M, Carolan H, Toleno D (2016). The IRIDICA BAC BSI assay: rapid, sensitive and culture-independent identification of bacteria and candida in blood. PLoS One 11(7):e0158186.
Crossref

 
 

Motoshima M, Yanagihara K, Morinaga Y, Matsuda J, Hasegawa H, Kohno S, Kamihira S (2012). Identification of bacteria directly from positive blood culture samples by DNA pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. Journal of medical microbiology 61(11):1556-1562.
Crossref

 
 

Murphy S, Xu J, Kochanak K (2012). Deaths: preliminary data for 2010. National Vital Statistics reports (table 6: expectation of life at selected ages by race, Hispanic origin, race for non-population, and sex: United States, preliminary 2010), in National Vital Statistics Reports 60(4):1-69.

 
 

Mwaigwisya S, Assiri RAM, O'Grady J (2015). Emerging commercial molecular tests for the diagnosis of bloodstream infection. Expert review of molecular diagnostics 15(5):681-692.
Crossref

 
 

Nieman A, Savelkoul P, Beishuizen A, Henrich B, Lamik B, MacKenzie C, Kindgen-Milles D, Helmers A, Diaz C, Sakka S (2016). A prospective multicenter evaluation of direct molecular detection of blood stream infection from a clinical perspective. BMC infectious diseases 16(1):314.
Crossref

 
 

Opota O, Jaton K, Greub G (2015). Microbial diagnosis of bloodstream infection: towards molecular diagnosis directly from blood. Clinical microbiology and infection 21(4):323-331.
Crossref

 
 

Ozbak H (2018). Development of a novel high-resolution melting analysis approach for rapid detection of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Annals of Saudi Medicine 38(3): 200-207.
Crossref

 
 

Ozbak H, Dark P, Maddi S, Chadwich P, Warhurst G (2012). Combined molecular gram typing and high-resolution melting analysis for rapid identification of a syndromic panel of bacteria responsible for sepsis-associated bloodstream infection. Journal of Molecular Diagnostics 14:176-184.
Crossref

 
 

Özenci V, Tegmark-Wisell K, Lundberg C, Wretlind B (2008). Rapid culture and identification: a practical method for early preliminary laboratory diagnosis of sepsis. Clinical microbiology and infection 14(2):177-180.
Crossref

 
 

Paolucci M, Landini M, Sambri V (2010). Conventional and molecular techniques for the early diagnosis of bacteraemia. International journal of antimicrobial agents 36:S6-S16.
Crossref

 
 

Peters R, van Agtmael M, Danner S, Savelkoul P, Vandenbroucke-Grauls C (2004). New developments in the diagnosis of bloodstream infections. The Lancet infectious diseases 4(12):751-760.
Crossref

 
 

Pfaller M, Wolk D, Lowery T (2016). T2MR and T2Candida: novel technology for the rapid diagnosis of candidemia and invasive candidiasis. Future microbiology 11(1):103-117.
Crossref

 
 

Philip A, Hewitt J (1980). Early diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. Pediatrics 65(5):1036-1041.

 
 

Prakash K, Arora V, Geethanjali P (2011). Bloodstream bacterial pathogens and their antibiotic resistance pattern in Dhahira Region, Oman. Oman medical journal 26(4):240.

 
 

Regueiro B, Varela-Ledo E, Martinez-Lamas L, Rodriguez-Calvi-o J, Aguilera A, Santos A, Gomez-Tato A, Alvarez-Escudero J (2010). Automated extraction improves multiplex molecular detection of infection in septic patients. PLoS One 5(10):e13387.
Crossref

 
 

Reier-Nilsen T, Farstad T, Nakstad B, Lauvrak V, Steinbakk M (2009). Comparison of broad range 16S rDNA PCR and conventional blood culture for diagnosis of sepsis in the newborn: a case control study. BMC pediatrics 9(1):5.
Crossref

 
 

Russell J (2012). Biomarkers in sepsis and severe infection: Where immunology meets diagnostics. Journal of Immunodeficiency & Disorders 1(1).

 
 

Schulte W, Bernhagen J, Bucala R (2013). Cytokines in sepsis: potent immunoregulators and potential therapeutic targets—an updated view. Mediators of inflammation 2013:Article ID 165974,16 pages

 
 

Shorr A, Tabak Y, Killian A, Gupta V, Liu L, Kollef M (2006). Healthcare-associated bloodstream infection: a distinct entity? Insights from a large US database. Critical care medicine 34(10):2588-2595.
Crossref

 
 

Sullivan K, Turner N, Roundtree S, Young S, Brock-Haag C, Lacey D, Abuzaid S, Blecker-Shelly D, Doern C (2013). Rapid detection of gram-positive organisms using the Verigene gram-positive blood culture nucleic acid test and the BacT/ALERT pediatric FAN system in a multi-centered pediatric evaluation. Journal of clinical microbiology 01224-01213.
Crossref

 
 

Sullivan K (2017). Rapid Molecular Panels: What Is in the Best Interest of the Patient? A Review of Patient Outcome Studies for Multiplex Panels Used in Bloodstream, Respiratory, and Neurological Infections. Clinical Microbiology Newsletter 39(16):125-129.
Crossref

 
 

Tang Y-W, Kilic A, Yang Q, McAllister S, Li H, Miller R, McCormac M, Tracy K, Stratton C, Han J (2007). StaphPlex system for rapid and simultaneous identification of antibiotic resistance determinants and Panton-Valentine leukocidin detection of staphylococci from positive blood cultures. Journal of clinical microbiology 45(6):1867-1873.
Crossref

 
 

Timsit J-F, Laupland K (2012). Update on bloodstream infections in ICUs. Current opinion in critical care 18(5):479-486.
Crossref

 
 

Vincent J-L, Brealey D, Libert N, Abidi N, O'Dwyer M, Zacharowski K, Mikaszewska-Sokolewicz M, Schrenzel J, Simon F, Wilks M (2015). Rapid diagnosis of infection in the critically ill, a multicenter study of molecular detection in bloodstream infections, pneumonia, and sterile site infections. Critical care medicine 43(11):2283.
Crossref

 
 

Volante E, Moretti S, Pisani F, Bevilacqua G (2004). Early diagnosis of bacterial infection in the neonate. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 16(2):13-16.
Crossref

 
 

Wacker C, Prkno A, Brunkhorst F, Schlattmann P (2013). Procalcitonin as a diagnostic marker for sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet infectious diseases 13(5):426-435.
Crossref

 
 

Wellinghausen N, Kochem A-J, Disqué C, Mühl H, Gebert S, Winter J, Matten J, Sakka S (2009). Diagnosis of bacteremia in whole-blood samples by use of a commercial universal 16S rRNA gene-based PCR and sequence analysis. Journal of clinical microbiology 47(9):2759-2765.
Crossref

 
 

Whicher J, Bienvenu J, Monneret G (2001). Procalcitonin as an acute phase marker. Annals of clinical biochemistry 38(5):483-493.
Crossref

 
 

Yang S, Ramachandran P, Rothman R, Hsieh Y, Hardick A, Won H (2009). Rapid identification of biothreat and other clinically relevant bacterial species by use of universal PCR coupled with high resolution melting analysis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 47:2252-2255.
Crossref