Ethiopia where human and hyena coexist in a higher density.

Spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) are the most common among all large carnivores, found all over sub-Saharan Africa, including tropical forests, alpine areas and true deserts (Yalden et al., 1996; Mills and Harvey, 2001; Gade, 2006). The species is commonly seen as hunter of domestic animals. Moreover, spotted hyena is also known to attack and kill humans, particularly at the time of disease outbreaks (Kingdon, 1977; Hofer, 2002; Gade, 2006). In Africa, the total population of C. crocuta is estimated to be about 27,000 and 47,000 (Mills and Hofer, 1998). Most of the population are found in Tanzania of the Serengeti ecosystem (Kruuk, 1966; Schaller, 1972; Ray et al., 2005) and South Africa of the Kruger National Park (Ray et al., 2005). The abundance, distribution and population structure of spotted hyena in South African region are stable, whereas in other region of Africa (East, Central and West Africa) many populations are considered to be declining (Hofer and Mills, 1998; Ray et al., 2005). The main reasons for decline of spotted hyena distribution and populations in the area is because of the habitat degradation, poison, low number of natural pray, and persecution and disease. These factors make spotted hyenas dependent on the continued existence of conservation areas (Mills and Hofer, 1998).

In Ethiopia, the great dependence of a large proportion of the human population for their survival on the agriculture, coupled with the presence of large numbers of livestock led to sources of conflict between people and wildlife. Human population growth coupled with expansion of agriculture resulted in habitat degradation through the loss of vegetation cover of the country. Therefore, the natural forest areas of the region are overexploited. In eastern part of Ethiopia, humans have coexisted with high abundance spotted hyenas. This species is one of the few large carnivores found in the area that survive in the habitats with dense human populations. The natural habitat available in the area for natural prey base for carnivores is degraded and fragmented. Therefore, existence of spotted hyena as other large carnivores mostly relies on the predation of livestock and domestic waste disposal. In El Kere and Bare of South Eastern Ethiopia, 50 people were attacked by hyena in the year 1998/1999, of which majority of them (35 0ut of 55) were children. In the same year at Fedis which is located at 30 km from Harer city, hyena killed 3 people and injured 3 others (Sapa-AFP, 1999). After a year, in 2000 in the northern part of Somalia Region, 4 people died because of hyena. In 2005/2006, hyenas killed 11 people and more than 40 were wounded in the same region (IRIN, 2000; Somalil and Times, 2006).

However, studies dealing with human hyena conflict and addressing problems associated with the conflict in the region were unknown. The impact of human-hyena conflict in relation to livestock loss, its economic impact for the livelihood of the local peoples, problem associated with the death of peoples and feeding habit and preference of spotted hyena are poorly known, not yet quantified and documented. Domestic animal owners are challenged by losses of their animals from spotted hyena. Therefore, assessing human hyena conflict and quantifying associated impacts are fundamental to implement appropriate conflict mitigation techniques so as to minimize domestic animal loss and to safe guard the conservation of the species. In this paper the actual proportion of domestic animal predation by spotted hyena, was determined; the economic losses of livestock depredation associated with human hyena conflict over the past ten years were quantified; asses human attack; identify vulnerable animal species to spotted hyena predation and quantify the feeding habit of spotted hyena in Haramaya distract, Eastern Ethiopia. 

Feeding habit and preferences

Feeding habit of spotted hyena was characterized using Scat Analysis. 85 spotted hyena drops were obtained from four sub-districts: Tinike, n = 22; Finkile, n = 19; Bocheke, n= 16; and Kerensa, n = 28. Samples were preserved in 5 to 10% formalin solution in individual plastic bottle and brought to the Animal Physiology Laboratory of Haramaya University for examination. Samples were washed by distilled water for proper identification, and then hairs were extracted from washed sample and observed under a microscope, the comparison was done using hair in our reference collection to analyze prey species composition. Reference collection was prepared from hair of all domestic animals, human and selected wild species found in the study area. Style, form, length and color of the hair were used to identify the hair of the prey using a microscope. 

Diet analysis

The feeding analysis of spotted hyenas result showed that prey of domestic origin dominated the feeding type. Dikdik (M. saltiana), klipspringer (O. oreotragus) and porcupine (H. cristata) were observed from scat of Kerensa sub-district (Table 3). A significant difference was observed in the frequency occurrence of hair among species (P < 0.05), but there is no significant difference between sub-districts. Goat, sheep, cattle, chicken and donkey were the commonly   observed   species of domestic animals in the feed analyzed.

Agriculture was the main activity of the people around in the district. Farmers reared different types of livestock such as cattle, sheep, goat and pack animals. Respondents claimed that spotted hyena came to the village and attacked their domestic animals. The result of the study showed the losses of 1587 domestic animals because of existence of hyena over the past ten years (Table 1). Human coexist with many large carnivores in several parts of Africa (O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2000). However, one of the main reasons for many carnivores changing their diets is impoverishment of prey populations, due to their hunting competence (Woodroffe et al., 2005; Kolowski and Holekamp, 2006). For instance Polisar et al. (2003) in Venezuela of Hato Pinero cattle ranch, the very high number of livestock loss have been recorded in this area, but the area is known by its low abundance and  diversity  (Polisar   et   al.,   2003). The respondent pointed out that hyena found around in the district often preyed on livestock, causing economic loss to farmers. Compared to studies conducted in other area, the economic loss caused by predation of hyena in the study area is significantly low (Holmern et al., 2007; Kissui, 2008; Yirga and Bauer, 2010). In this study, the economic loss was 0.57%, whereas Holmern et al. (2007) and Kissui (2008) found 19% of yearly monetary loss households in other area (Holmern et al., 2007; Kissui, 2008). However, this variation might be because of the variation in relation with the country’s living standard.

In Haramaya district, the natural vegetation was degraded, because of land for human settlement, farming and grazing, cutting of forest for charcoal or fire wood production and other development projects. This has resulted in the deterioration of wildlife habitat and vegetation cover in the area and depletion of the natural prey species. Therefore, diet of hyena was predominantly dependent on domestic origin, because the habitat where hyenas live support inadequate food resources, however for survival, hyenas require 3.8 to 4.0 kg of food per day (Henschel and Tilson, 1988). Therefore, in the area where the abundance of wild prey is very low, domestic animals serves as prey buffer (Litvaitis, 2000; De Iongh et al., 2004; Abay et al., 2011) and starts to attack peoples and their domestic animals. This result proved that spotted hyenas and human can exist together in the area, because hyena is dependent on anthropogenic food in his diet. The population of hyena is very high; therefore, domestic waste and predation of domestic animals are sources of food and can substantially support the existence of a viable spotted hyena population in the district.

The present killing of domestic animals is the major cause of conflict between human wildlife conflicts in the district. Frank (1998) and Ogada et al. (2003) also confirmed livestock loss by wildlife as a cause for human wildlife conflict (Frank, 1998; Ogada et al., 2003). Wildlife is accountable for the loss of 3% of livestock per year (Jackson and Nowell, 1996). This study revealed that loss of domestic animals because of coexistence of human and spotted hyena is a great economic concern for the poor farmers whose economy is dependent on agriculture in Eastern Ethiopia. Studies analyzing human wildlife conflict in many part of the world showed that the rate of tolerance among local communities toward predators mostly depends on the degree of predation on their domestic animals (Kolowski and Holekamp, 2006; Holmern et al., 2007).

Between 2011 and 2012, 24 people were attacked by spotted hyena. The study showed that 50% of the incidence happened during the dark when they go to toilet, while the rest was induced when people sleep outdoors at night or travel from one village to the other or from one house to the other house predominantly during night or dark time. This is because of the fact that the species are night time predators, probably due  to  their better night vision relative to their prey which is domestic animals (Bertram, 1979). The results are also supported by other studies elsewhere. For instance, a boy was attacked by a spotted hyena when he was sleeping in Northern Kenya (Flying Doctors Society of Africa, 2002). Kruuk (1972) reported the attack of sleeping peoples by spotted hyena in Malawai. In our investigation, majority (75%) of the people that faced a problem with spotted hyena were males. This is due to the fact that males are involved to support human or domestic animals when hyena bites them rather than women or children to protect victims. However this finding obtained during the present study is inconsistent with other records from Tanzania. Kruuk (1972) recorded that spotted hyena attacked 60 people in Tanzania, among which majority of them were women and children. However, the number of humans that died or got injured by spotted hyena occurred rarely and did not occur regularly. Even though the number of people affected or died by hyena was low, its impact with regard to the local people perception was large.

The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.

The authors are grateful to Haramaya University for the financial and logistical support. They are also indebted to all field and laboratory staffs and local peoples who collaborated with them during the interviews.