Agriculture is the most important sector in Ethiopia and contributes significantly to the livelihoods of the study areas with fastest growing economic (Paul  et  al.,  2016). Agriculture of the country areas has been characterized by low productivity due to land degradation, low technological  inputs,  low   soil   fertility,  weak  institution linkage, lack of appropriate and effective agricultural policies and strategies (Aklilu, 2015; Abush et al., 2011). Smallholder farmers in the study areas are not focused on market oriented productions rather than substance production in dynamics of farming system. These challenges call for characterization and analysis of farming system of the study areas to enhance production and productivity of crop, livestock and natural resources.

A farming system is a unique and reasonably stable arrangement of farming enterprises that a household manages according to well defined practices in response to the physical, biological and socio-economic environment and in accordance with the household goals preferences and resources (Garnett et al., 2013). The Ethiopian agriculture is dominated by about 11.7 million smallholders responsible for about 95% of the national agricultural production while large farms contribute only 5% of the total production (CSA, 2017). This shows that the overall economy of the country and the food security of the majority of the population depend on small-scale agriculture.

Farming systems comprise complex production units involving a diversity of mixed crops and livestock in order to meet the multiple objectives of the household (Dennis et al., 2012) which is similar to the study areas. The combination of these activities depends on environmental conditions, resource endowment and the management skills of the farmer. Understanding the interdependence of the elements of the farming system and maintaining the balance in the complex set of farmer's objectives are relevant to outlining promising development strategies for such systems (FAO, 2016). The classification of developing countries may be varied as available natural resource base, climate, landscape, farm size, tenure and organization, dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihood. This determines the intensity of production, diversification of crops and other activities.

Therefore, a classification of the farming systems into homogeneous groups is proposed which allows the analysis of the existing farm organization and the interrelationships among the system's elements and evaluation effects of optimal allocation of farm resources and technological innovations in the areas.

Specific objectives

(1) To characterize and analyze the existing farming system of major agro-ecology of the study areas;

(2) To identify the production constraints and opportunities of the farming system for interventions.

Sampling techniques

A multi-stage technique was employed to select sample households from the population. In the first stage, West Shewa Zone was stratified into two agro-ecologies which are high land and mid land that are more homogenous than the total population. In the second stage, from each stratum one district was selected purposively based on agro-ecology, crop potential, livestock and natural resources. Accordingly, Cheliya district was selected from highland and Ilu Gelan district was selected from midland agro-ecology. In the third stage, two kebeles were selected purposively from each district based on agro-ecology, crop potential, livestock, natural resources and accessibility. Finally, 105 sample households were selected randomly using probability proportional to size.

Data type and data collection analysis

The study was based on both primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected from the sample households using a semi-structural schedule by trained enumerators. In order to capture better information of the study areas, qualitative data collection such as focus group discussion was conducted using checklist schedule. Each group consisted of at least 20 considering gender and wealth status based on formal survey. Secondary data were also collected from published and unpublished materials from the respective West Shewa zone and districts for a comprehensive report and rational conclusion.

Data analysis methods

Descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentage were used to analyze quantitative data gathered from sampled households. The constraints were analyzed using pair wise ranking to prioritize the constraints.

Sample household characteristics

About 4.8% of the sample households were female headed with zero percentage observed in Ilu Gelan District. Regarding technology adoption 28.69% of sample households were model farmers and 71.40% were followers. According to key informants interview model the farmers adopted new technologies early than followers. Only 12.40% of sample households were rich in wealth status (Table 1). The average household size across the surveyed households was 7.39 whereas the average number of adults was 5.91 using conversion factors which consider age and sex of the member.

Land holding and acquisition methods

Land is the most important asset of sample household in Ethiopia and the availability of land permits the production of more crops (Bekele et al., 2017). The study indicated land tenure and how land under the farmers control was utilized. The survey result revealed that, the average of 2.04 ha per farmer was owned by sample households and 1.56 ha per farmer was cultivated. The average grazing land, forest land and residential land is summarized in Table 2. About 0.42, 0.18 and 0.07 ha per farmer were allocated for grazing land, forest and residential land, respectively. In the survey sites, fallow land was not a common practice due to shortage of land. There was minimum activity on land renting and more than half apply crop sharing system during the survey period (Table 2).

Ownership of farm equipment, communication technology and others

Ownership of production assets is a proxy for households’ socio-economic status. These help in increasing farm productivity and assessing the means to disseminate technology information to famers. Households own ox-plough, hoe and other (Spade, axe, etc.) farm equipment which are the most important in farming activities. The result indicated that on average 100, 93.90 and 71.40% per farmer ox-plough, sickle and hoe were owned for agricultural activities, respectively. 

Information technology was more informed and can be used as contact farmers through mobile, radio and TV. About 49.50% sample households own radio while  about 64.80 and 5.70% own mobile phone and TV which are used as technology information disseminated to farmers in the study areas (Table 3).

Livelihood activities of sample households

The farming systems in the west Shewa zone were characterized as mixed farming systems. In the mixed farming systems both livestock and crop production take place within the same locality.

The major sources of livelihood activities of farmers in study districts were crop production, livestock rearing and off/non-farming. As indicated in Table 4, about 100 and 98.10% of sample households’ livelihood depend on crop production and livestock rearing which contributed 59.10 and 27.44% of total annual income, respectively. Besides, off/non-farming activities like crop and livestock trading, daily labors, petty trade, and wood craft were additional income and food sources of households. The result indicates that about 53.33% of sample households participated in off/non-farming activities which contributed 13.46% to annual income generation.

Livestock ownership

Table 5 presents livestock ownership in terms of herd size and composition. Result shows that a high percentage of the population in the survey areas own cows and oxen types of livestock at 92.40% with 2.11 herd sizes and 88.60% with 2.54 herd sizes, respectively. The result indicated that in the study areas cow and ox keeping were the most important. Sheep and goats were important as income source by the farming population. About 46.70 and 14.30% of sample households own sheep and goats, respectively. Mules, donkey and horses were used for transportation services. About 25.70, 20 and 9.50% of sample households owned horses, donkey and mule for means of transportation service and income generation source.

Analysis of the herd size shows that cattle lead in the number kept with average herd sizes of 2.11 and 2.54 TLU for cows and oxen, respectively. This is consistent with other results by Svein (2002) which indicates the relative importance of cattle ownership in Ethiopia which acts as symbol of prosperity. Although chicken was kept by 70.50% of sample households which is more than shoats and equines with only 6.70% households keeping improved poultry.

The average milk per day was 1.48 and 1.30 L at Cheliya and Ilu Gelan districts, respectively. Majority of sample households reported milk productivity decreased from time to time over last five years due to feed shortage and disease.

Livestock ownership is generally regarded as key to rural livelihoods which are sources of power and fertilizer for crop production, supply human food, transportation, income generation sources and wealth communication (Behnke and Fitaweke, 2011; Amede et al., 2011). Moreover, the role of oxen availability played in the timely adequate cropland preparation could contribute to increase food-feed crop production.

Livestock production and marketing constraints

Livestock producers were asked to give their perspectives on most important constraints affecting their livestock farm operations and their responses are summarized in Table 6. The three most frequently reported production constraints were disease like trypanosomiasis, black leg, anthrax, pastevrellosis and mastitis (96.19%), shortage of grazing land (73.33%) and feed shortage (48.57%). Lack of capital was reported as an important constraint by 25.71% of the households during the survey period. Similarly, shortage of veterinary medicine, shortage of water and lack of improved breed were reported as important production constraints by 20.95, 18.10 and 14.29% of the households keeping cattle, respectively.

Disease (pasteyrellosis, lichen, leg and foot and mouth and dermatophytosis) and shortage of grazing land were the most important production constraints of shoats and equines. There are about 52.38  and  49.52%  of  disease and shortage of grazing land by keeping shoats. Regarding keeping equines about 31.43 and 30.48% of sample households reported disease and shortage of grazing land as important production constraints, respectively. Disease and feed shortage were very important production constraints by 66.67 and 16.19% of sample households keeping poultry, respectively.

The main marketing problems of livestock were market price/demand fluctuation, lack of capital, lack of market information, lack of market linkage, unorganized marketing system and high transaction cost summarized in Table 6. High transaction cost (71.43%) and lack of capital   (35.24%)   were   reported   as   main   marketing constraints by sample households keeping cattle. Lack of market information and market price/demand fluctuation were reported as important constraints in the marketing of cattle. The result indicates that about 23.81 and 21.90% of sample households reported to lack of market information and market price/demand fluctuation, respectively. In the study areas lack of market linkage (14.29%) and unorganized marketing system (12.38) of sample households were reported as constraints in cattle marketing.

As presented in Table 6, high transaction cost (52.38%), lack of market information (33.33%) and lack of market   linkage   (28.57%)   were   the  main  constraints reported by sample households keeping shoats. Besides, lack of capital, market price/demand fluctuation and unorganized marketing system were reported as important constraints of shoats marketing.

High transaction cost was the major constraint in equines and poultry marketing. About 14.29 and 23.81% of sample households reported transaction cost as important constraints in equines and poultry marketing, respectively. Lack of market information, lack of market linkage, unorganized marketing system and market price/demand fluctuation were reported in both equines and poultry marketing as constraints. Lack of capital was constraint in poultry marketing. Generally, in livestock marketing, high transaction cost is the most important constraint in cattle, shoats, equines and poultry production.

Livestock feeding system

Types of livestock feeding systems  were  summarized  in Table 7. Livestock producers practiced three grazing systems and their combinations. Straw (teff, barley, wheat, bean, pea) and stover of maize and sorghum were extensively used and animals were grazed on crop stubble due to palatable by livestock and no other feed option for their livestock. About 97.14 and 35.24% of sample households used teff straw and stover of maize and sorghum, respectively.

There are no apparent private or public sector efforts in improving the use of crop residues and improved forages by sample households during the survey period. Supplementary feeds like fagullo and salt were used by few farmers during the survey period.

Beekeeping practices

Beekeeping practice is a common practice of rural livelihoods as income generation source and home consumption. Table 8 presents beekeeping practice and major  constraint  in  terms  of   number   and   production honey. Result shows that a few percentage of the sample households in the survey areas own traditional types of beehives (27.62%) with 4.52 numbers per farmer beehives. The four most frequently reported constraints were herbicide (28.57%), shortage of bee forage (20.95%), ants and wild animals (19.05%) and price fluctuation of honey (13.33%). Shortage of bee (7.62%) was also important constraint by bee production marketing system during the survey period.

Livestock production is the important assets in the study areas for different purposes including sources of food (milk, meat and byproduct of milk), draught power, transportation service, source of income generation (sale live and byproduct) and manure production for soil fertility improvement. Livestock management practices in the study areas are based on traditional knowledge and local breeds. The feed resources commonly used in the study areas were primarily natural pasture (communal and own grazing), crop residues and purchased supplementary feed. Improved forage crop was not common practice in the study areas by sample households during the survey period. Few farmers practiced traditional beekeeping with herbicides, shortage of bee forage, ants and wild, price fluctuation and shortage of bee constraints.

The major problems of livestock production were disease and parasite, shortage of grazing land, shortage of feed, lack of improved breeds, shortage of veterinary medicine, shortage of water and lack of capital. The main livestock marketing constraints were high transaction cost, market  price/demand  fluctuation,  lack  of   market information, unorganized marketing system and lack of market linkage. The main livestock diseases were fugal (poultry disease), trypanosomiasis, pastevrellosis, mastitis, anthrax, black leg, mouth and foot, lichen and lamp skin. Majority of the farmers used vaccination and drug for controlling disease with poor quality and knowledge. To improve livestock production and productivity access improved breed, improved forage, control disease infection and improving marketing linkage are crucial.

In all crop types produced in the districts, average productivity per hectare is below national average productivity due to different constraints. The major constraints in crop production were pests (diseases and insects), high cost of inputs, shortage of land, weed infestation, shortage of inputs, low yield, poor quality of seed, lack of capital and poor soil fertility. High transaction cost, low price output, market price/demand fluctuation, lack of market information, lack of capital and lack of market linkage were reported as major crop marketing constraints. To enhance production and productivity of crops supply improved inputs capacitates farmers’ awareness on integrated pest managements (IPM) to control pests and strengthen marketing linkage.

A large number of tree species were observed in natural forest found scattered on farmlands, garden areas as live fences and marginal land as a source of income generation, control soil erosion and soil fertility improvement. The major constraints of natural resources which account for productivity were soil erosion, termite attack, soil acidity, soil fertility decline, water logging and lack of sustainable land management caused by over cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation. However, expanding natural resource conservation and more awareness about the use of physical and biological soil conservation are more critical for soil improvement and increased productivity.

The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.